Heavy Metal Rock Punk Music Dean Guitar Band T-Shirt ,
History
Atlantic Avenue Station Identification
Heins & LaFarge (19011907)
Two firms were pioneers in creating this masterful ceramic work.
The earliest work was done by Heins & LaFarge (artists George C. Heins and Christopher Grant LaFarge), starting in 1901 and continuing up to 1907. Heins and LaFarge were both relatives of John LaFarge (brother-in-law and son, respectively), who was a leading stained-glass artisan of the day. They were part of the Arts and Crafts movement and worked in the Beaux-Arts architecture style, both of which were very much in vogue at the turn of the Twentieth Century. At the time of their hiring they had completed large projects at New York’s Cathedral of St. John the Divine and Bronx Zoo. As well as designing the artistic motifs, Heins & LaFarge also did much of the architectural work that determined the overall appearance of entire subway stations.
They knew what type of materials would stand up well to heavy-duty cleaning and scrubbing; they worked with the ceramic-producing firms Grueby Faience Company of Boston and Rookwood Pottery of Cincinnati. Their ceramic artwork includes colorful pictorial motifs relevant to a station’s location, for example:
The South Ferry station is decorated by 15 bas-relief representations of a sailing ship on the water.
The Astor Place station is decorated with large ceramic beaver emblems, representing the beaver pelts that helped make John Jacob Astor wealthy.
The 116th Street station includes a bas-relief emblem representing nearby Columbia University.
In addition to being beautiful, the pictorial images on the tiles were — and are — also helpful to New York City’s large population of non-English speakers, as well as people who are illiterate. Subway travelers, for example, could be told, “Get off at the stop with the picture of the beaver.”
The bas-relief found underground in the subway has been compared to the work of the Italian Renaissance artist Andrea Della Robbia. Much of their tile work was station-identifying signs to guide passengers. As well as pictorial plaques and ceramic signs, another aspect of their work is running decorative motifs, such as egg-and-dart patterns, along station ceilings.
Squire Vickers (19061942 , wooden tiles .
In 1906 Squire J. Vickers, a young architect, was hired to continue with the projects. Vickers showed much respect for the style of Heins & LaFarge. His work consists much more of mosaics; he did not utilize the bas-relief technique, citing the need to keep the artwork flat to the wall for easier cleaning. In his pictorial work, Vickers emphasizes actual buildings that might act as landmarks, such as his colorful depiction of Brooklyn Borough Hall (1919) at the station of that name, rather than Heins & LaFarge’s beavers and sailing ships. He describes his mosaic technique like this , porcelain flooring .
“…the mosaic was of the cut variety, that is, the body is burned in strips, glazed, and then broken into irregular shapes. The designs are set by hand and shipped in sections with paper pasted on the front. These sections are set against the wall flush with the tile. In certain stations the color bands and name tablets are a combination of mosaic and hand-made tile”
(Stookey, 1994).
Vickers continued to work on subway projects for 36 years, up until 1942.
Exhibition (2007)
Two exhibitions, one celebrating the work of Heins & LaFarge and one for Vickers, were mounted at the New York Transit Museum’s Gallery Annex at Grand Central Terminal during 2007.
Subway Tiles Today
Several New York City subway stations have new ceramic and mosaic work, carrying on the subway tile tradition of bringing color and cheerfulness underground. Some examples are:
The 28th Street station on the BMT Broadway Line is home to fanciful mosaic work “City Dwellers” by Mark Hadjipateras .
The Houston Street station on the IRT Broadwayeventh Avenue Line is home to “Platform Diving” by artist Deborah Brown
The 81st Streetuseum of Natural History station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line is home to “For Want of a Nail” by the MTA Arts for Transit Design Team .
The Prince Street station on the BMT Broadway Line is home to “Carrying On” an artwork by Janet Zweig .
The 110th Street station on the IND Eighth Avenue Line is home to “Migration” by artist Christopher Wynter .
The 191st Street station, which has been renovated with reproductions of the original tile work.
External links
MTA Arts for Transit-The Official NYC Subway Art and Rail Art Guide
Forgotten New York - New Mosaics
Subway Art Guide
SubwayCeramics Historically-authentic subway tile
Stookey, Lee (1994). Subway Ceramics. North Haven, CT: William J. Mack Co.
Categories: New York City Subway | American pottery
Wooden Parquets, Floorings, Hardwood Floorings, Engineering Flooring ,
ass tiles are pieces of glass formed into consistent shapes. Glass was used in mosaics as early as 2500 BC, but it took until the 3rd Century BC before innovative artisans in Greece, Persia and India created glass tiles.
Whereas clay tiles are dated as early as 8,000 BC, there were significant barriers to the development of glass tiles, included the high temperatures required to melt glass, and the complexities of mastering various annealing curves for glass.
In recent years, glass tiles have become a popular field and accent tiles. This trend can be attributed to recent technological breakthroughs, as well as the tiles inherent properties, in particular their potential to impart intense color and reflect light, and their imperviousness to water.
Glass in tile introduces complexities to the installer, as glass is more rigid than ceramic or porcelain tile, so glass tiles break more readily under the duress of substrate shifts.
Smalti tile, sometimes referred to as Byzantine glass mosaic tile, are typically opaque glass tiles that were originally developed for use in mosaics created during the time of the Byzantine empire.
Smalti is made by mixing molten glass with metal oxides for color; the result is a cloudy mixture that is poured into flat slabs that are cooled and broken into individual pieces. The molten mixture can also be topped with gold leaf, followed by a thin glass film to protect against tarnishing. During the Byzantine era, Constantinople became the center of the mosaic craft, and the use of gold leaf glass mosaic reached perhaps it greatest artistic expression in the former seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia.
Traditional smalti tiles are still found today in many European churches and ornamental objects; the method is also used by some present-day artisans. In the 1920, mass production methods were applied to Smalti tile manufacturing, which enabled these tiles to find their way into many middle class homes. Instead of the old method of rolling the colored glass mixture out, cooling and cutting, the new method called for molten liquid to be poured and cooled in trays, usually resulting in 3/4 inch chicklet-type pieces.
Since the 1990 a variety of modern glass tile technologies, including methods to take used glass and recreate it as reen tiles, has resulted in a resurgence of interest in glass tile as a floor and wall cladding. It is now commonly used in kitchens, spas and bathrooms. And while smalti tiles are still popular, small and large format glass products are now commonly formed using cast and fused glass methods. The plasticity of these last two methods has resulted in a wide variety of looks and applications, including floor tiles
In the late 1990s, special glass tiles have been coated on the back side with a receptive white coating. This has allowed impregnation of heat-transfer dyes by a printing process reproducing high resolution pictures and designs. Custom printed glass tile and glass tile murals exhibit the toughness of glass on the wearing surface with photo-like pictures. These are especially practical in kitchens and showers, where cleanser and moisture resistance are important.
See als , handmade ceramic tiles .
Stained glas , rustic tiles .
Sources
FCI Magazine
About Glass Tile
The Joy of Shards
External links
Mosaic Glass Tile - Terms & Definitions
Corning Museum of Glass
v d e
Glass forming techniques
Commercial techniques
Float glass process Blowing and pressing (containers) Extrusion / Drawing (fibers, glasswool) Drawing (optical fibers) Precision glass moulding Overflow downdraw method Pressing Casting Cutting Flame polishing Chemical polishing Diamond turning Rolling
Artistic and historic techniques
Beadmaking Blowing Blown plate Broad sheet Caneworking Crown glass Cylinder blown sheet Engraving Etching Fourcault process Fusing Lampworking Machine drawn cylinder sheet Millefiori Polished plate Slumping Stained glass fusing Stained glass production
See also
Glossary of glass art terms
Categories: Decorative arts | Mosaic | Art materials | Glass art | Glass architecture | Glass applications
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History
See also: History of fishing
Gillnetting began with aboriginal fishermen using canoes and cedar fiber nets. They would attach stones to the bottom of the nets as weights, and pieces of wood to the top, to use as floats. This allowed the net to suspend straight up and down in the water. Each net would be suspended either from shore or between two boats. Native fishers in the Pacific Northwest, Canada, and Alaska still commonly use gillnets in their fisheries for salmon and steelhead.
By around 1864, gillnetting had expanded to European, Japanese, and other international fisheries. The boats used by these fisherman were typically around 25 feet (8 m) long and powered by oars. Many of these boats also had small sails and were called “row-sail” boats. At the beginning of the 1900s, steam powered ships would haul these smaller boats to their fishing grounds and retrieve them at the end of each day. However, at this time gas powered boats were beginning to make their appearance, and by the 1930s, the row-sail boat had virtually disappeared.
In 1931, the first powered drum was created by Laurie Jarelainen. The drum is a circular device that is set to the side of the boat and draws in the nets. The powered drum allowed the nets to be drawn in much faster and along with the faster gas powered boats, fisherman were able to fish in areas they had previously been unable to go into, thereby revolutionizing the fishing industry , caterpillar diesel engines .
During World War II, navigation and communication devices, as well as many other forms of maritime equipment (ex. depth-sounding and radar) were improved and made more compact. These devices became much more accessible to the average fisherman, thus making their range and mobility increasingly larger. It also served to make the industry much more competitive, as the fisherman were forced to invest more into their boats and equipment in order to stay up to date with the current technology , brake motor .
The introduction of fine synthetic fibres such as nylon in the construction of fishing gear during the 1960s marked an expansion in the commercial use of gillnets. The new materials were cheaper and easier to handle, lasted longer and required less maintenance than natural fibres. In addition, multifilament nylon, monofilament or multimonofilament fibres become almost invisible in water, so nets made with synthetic twines generally caught greater numbers of fish than natural fibre nets used in comparable situations.
Nylon is highly resistant to abrasion and degradation, hence the netting has the potential to last for many years if it is not recovered. This ghost fishing is of environmental concern. Attaching the gillnet floats with biodegradable material can reduce the problem. However it is difficult to generalize about the longevity of ghost-fishing gillnets due to the varying environments in which they are used. Some researchers have found gill-nets to be still catching fish and crustaceans for over a year after loss, while others have found lost nets to be destroyed by wave action within one month or overgrown with seaweeds, increasing their visibility and reducing their catching potential to such an extent that they became a microhabitat used by small fishes.
This type of net was heavily used by many Japanese, South Korean, and Taiwanese fishing fleets on the high seas in the 1980s to target tunas. Although highly selective with respect to size class of animals captured, gill nets are associated with high numbers of incidental captures of cetaceans, (whales and dolphins). In the Sri Lankan gill net fishery, one dolphin is caught for every 1.7-4.0 tonnes of tuna landed. This compares poorly with the rate of one dolphin per 70 tonnes of tuna landed in the eastern Pacific purse seine tuna fishery. Gillnets were banned by the United Nations in 1993 in international waters, although their use is still permitted within 200 nautical miles (400 km) of a coast.
Selectivity
Selectivity properties of a gillnet on a hypothetical population.
Gill nets are basically a series of panels of meshes with a weighted “foot rope” along the bottom, and a “headline”, to which floats are attached. They can therefore be set to fish at any height in the water column. The meshes of a gill net are uniform in size and shape, hence highly selective for a particular size of fish. Fish which are smaller than the mesh of the net are able to pass through unhindered, while those which are too large to push their heads through the meshes as far as their gills are not retained. This gives a selectivity ogive which is skewed towards medium sized fishes, unlike active gears such as trawling, in which the proportion of fish entering the net which are retained increases with length.
Commercial gillnet fisheries are still an important method of harvesting salmon in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon. In the Columbia River, non-Indian commercial salmon fisheries for spring chinook have developed methods of selectively harvesting adipose fin clipped hatchery salmon using small mesh gillnets. Non-fin clipped (primarily natural origin salmon are required to be released. Fishery management agencies estimate a relatively low release mortality rate on salmon and steelhead released from these small mesh gillnets.
Gillnets are sometimes a controversial gear type especially among sport fishers who sometimes argue they are inappropriate especially for salmon fisheries. Most salmon fisheries are strictly managed to minimize total impacts to specific populations and salmon fishery managers continue to allow their use.
Types of gillnets
The FAO classifies gillnet gear types as follows:
Set gillnets
External images
A bottom set gillnet
Set gillnets consist of a single netting wall kept vertical by a floatline (upper line/headrope) and a weighted groundline (lower line/footrope). Small floats, usually shaped like eggs or cylinders and made of solid plastic, are evenly distributed along the floatline, while lead weights are evenly distributed along groundline. The lower line can also be made of lead cored rope which does not need additional weight. The net is set on the bottom, or at a distance above it and held in place with anchors or weights on both ends. By adjusting the design these nets can fish in surface layers, in mid water or at the bottom, targeting pelagic, demersal or benthic species. On small boats gillnets are handled by hand. Larger boats use hydraulic net haulers or net drums. Set gillnets are widely used all over the world, and are employed both in inland and sea waters. They are popular with artisanal fisheries because no specialized gear is needed, and it is low cost based on the relationship of fuel/fish.
Encircling gillnets
Encircling gillnets are gillnets which are set vertically in shallow waters with the floatline remaining at the surface so they encircle fish. Small open boats or canoes can be used to set the net around the fish. Once the fish are encircled, the fishers shout and splash the water to panic the fish so they gill or entangle themselves. There is little negative impact on the environment. As soon as the gear is set the scaring takes place and the net is hauled back in. The fish are alive and discards can be returned to the sea. Encircling gillnets are commonly used by groups of small-scale fishers, and does not require other equipment.
Combined gillnets-trammel nets
This bottom-set gear has two parts
the upper part is a standard gillnet where semi-demersal or pelagic fish can be gilled
the lower part is a trammel net where bottom fish can entangle.
The combined nets are maintained more or less vertically in the usual way by floats on the floatline and weights on the groundline. They are set on the bottom. After a time depending on the target species, they are hauled on board. Traditional combined nets were hauled by hand, especially on smaller boats. Recent hydraulic driven net haulers are now common. The gilled, entangled and enmeshed fish are removed from the net by hand. Of some concern with this method is ghost fishing by lost nets and bycatch of diving seabirds. Nets combined in this way were first used in the Mediterranean.
Drift nets
A drift net consists of a number of gillnets strung together. They are left free to drift with the current, usually near the surface or not far below it. Floats on the floatline and weights on the groundline keep them vertical. Drift nets drift with the current while they are connected with the operating vessel, the driftnetter or drifter.
Drift nets are usually used to catch schooling forage fish such as herring and sardines, and also larger pelagic fish such as tuna, salmon and pelagic squid. Net haulers are usually used to set and haul driftnets, with a drifter capstan on the forepart of the vessel. In developing countries most nets are hauled by hand. The mesh size of the gillnets is very effective at selecting or regulating the size of fish caught. The drift net has a low fuel/fish energy consumption compared to other fishing gear. However, the issue of concern with this type of net is the bycatch of species which are not targeted, such as marine mammals, seabirds and to a minor extent turtles. The use of drift nets longer than 2.5 kilometres on the high seas was banned by the United Nations in 1991. Prior to this ban, drift nets were reaching lengths of 60 kilometres. However, there are still serious concerns with ongoing violations.
Gillnets and entangling nets
Gillnets and entangling nets (not specified)
Fixed gillnets (on stakes)
Notes
^ a b FAO: Fishing Gear…
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Construction and action
Traditionally, a single machine head consists of a cylinder or capstan, mounted at the center of a pinion gear, a knob or “button” and a worm gear that links them. The capstan has a hole through the far end from the gear, and the string is made to go through that hole, and is wrapped around the capstan. To complete the string installation, the string is tightened by turning the capstan using the tuning knob. The worm gear ensures that the capstan cannot turn without a movement on the knob; it also allows precise tuning.
Banjos usually employ a different mechanism using planetary gears - in this case the knob and the capstan both rotate on the same axis. A few guitars (e.g. the original Gibson Firebird, early Gibson basses and Mario Maccaferri’s plastic instruments) have used this design.
The guitarist adjusts the tension of the various strings using the knobs so that they are correctly tuned: a higher tension yields a sharper pitch, a lower tension a flatter pitch. Typical tensions for steel-string acoustic guitars with “light” tension strings are 10.5 kgf (23.3 lbf, 103 N) to 13.8 kgf (30.2 lbf, 135 N).
Varieties
Normally, worm gears provide a gear ratio of 14:1, though versions with 18:1 gear ratio also exist. They provide better accuracy in fine tuning, though are somewhat slower for initial string winding.
The machine heads on a classical guitar. Note the exposed gears and the decorations.
Several kinds of machine head apparatus exist:
on classical guitars (with nylon strings), the worm gears are generally exposed; the strings are wound on the pins inside grooves in the head;
on steel-string guitars, including “folk” acoustic guitars and electric guitars, the worm gears are generally placed in individual sealed enclosures with permanent lubrication, although budget models may have exposed gears fixed on plates housing a row of gears; several machine head placements are possible, depending on the shape of the headstock:
rectangular head, 2 rows of 3 pins (or 6 pins for 12-string guitars): found on most “Folk” and “Jazz” guitars and on Gibson Les Paul guitars;
a single diagonal row of 6 pins: found on Fender Telecaster and Stratocaster guitars;
one diagonal row of four pins and one diagonal row of two pins: found on Music Man guitars;
on bass guitars, where string tension is extremely high, larger, heavier-duty machine heads than those used on guitars are used. Bass tuners generally feature larger knobs than guitar tuners as well; often these are distinctively shaped, and known as “elephant ears.” Gear ratios of 20:1 are used often. Exposed gears are much more common in premium bass guitars than in six string non-bass instruments.
The reverse of the machine heads on a “folk” steel-string acoustic guitar. Note the enclosed gears , high power motors .
Since 1950s, guitar performance techniques evolved, and aggressive usage of tremolo arm became widespread. However, the original machine heads couldn’t withstand the rigors of constant string tension changing, and strings got out of tune after using tremolo several times. Several manufacturers, including Grover and Floyd Rose, introduced a new design, commonly named locking machine heads nowadays: a machine head with additional mechanism to lock it in place and stabilize tuning while playing and using tremolo. However, such machine heads reached limited success, mostly because of their price: as of 2006[update], locking ones are about 50% more expensive than original. Many break strings when tension is increased while the mechanism is locked and later unlocked, which frequently happens in music stores , yanmar marine engine .
Note that on some guitars, such as those with Floyd Rose bridge, string tuning may be also conducted using microtuning tuners located at guitar bridge. In this case, main machine heads at headstock may be missing entirely, as well as the headstock itself.
Likewise, ‘headless’ guitars and basses, notably those designed by Steinberger and their licensed imitations, such as the Hohner Jack Bass, and unlicensed imitations such as the Washburn Bantam, have the machine heads at the body end. Steinbergers and Hohners require specialist double-ball end strings, whereas the Washburn Bantam can take regular strings.
Notable designs
Martin EB18 Headstock showing Martin open type machine heads.
Several manufacturers established well-known designs of knobs and whole machine heads. These designs are subject to copy and reference:
Rodgers
Grover-style
Schaller-style
Kluson-style
Gotoh-style
Wilkinson-style
Fender-style
Gibson-style
Music Man-style
Speedwinder
Sperzel-style
Dean - style
ESP - style
References
There are several US patents on machine heads, mostly covering various aspects of locking:
US5,285,709 (PDF version) (1994-02-15) John D. Grant, Machine head for tuning a stringed instrument, especially a guitar or the like.
USD388,817 (PDF version) (1998-01-06) Han Soo Kang, Machine head for a guitar.
USD389,508 (PDF version) (1998-01-20) Han Soo Kang, Machine head for guitar.
US6,078,001 (PDF version) (2000-06-20) Han Soo Kang, Machine head for guitars.
US6,580,022 (PDF version) (2003-06-17) Han Soo Kang, Machine head for guitar.
Categories: String instrument construction | Guitar parts and accessoriesHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from July 2009 | All articles lacking sources | Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2006 | All articles containing potentially dated statements
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rbonite gears are commonly used in RC servos. The material that these gears are made from offer almost five times the strength of nylon gears and also better wear resistance. Cycle times of well over 300,000 have been observed with these gears with virtually no wear. Servos with these gears are more expensive than those using nylon gears but are highly durable.
References
^ Society of Robots: Actuators - Servo , electric gear motors .
This technology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it , lombardini engines .
Categories: Gears | Technology stubsHidden categories: Orphaned articles from October 2008 | All orphaned articles
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ok up den in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Den may refer to:
Den (architecture), a part of a house similar to the bedroom: a den is about the size of bedroom.
“Dirty” Den Watts, a fictional character in EastEnders
Lair, a home that wild animals make for themselves
Den (comics), a Richard Corben comic book series
Den (newspaper), a Ukrainian newspaper
Den (Pharaoh), a Pharaoh of Egypt
The Den (television), Irish children’s television programme also known as Dempsey’s Den, Den TV and Den2 through the year , long chain necklace .
Denver International Airport (IATA code: DEN , ball christmas ornament .
Dens (anatomy)
DEN (internet site) the digital entertainment network or den.net.
Den (Battle Angel Alita), a fictional character in the Battle Angel Alita manga by Yukito Kishiro
Den, the abbreviation for the orchid genus Dendrobium
Children’s Den, referring to a shelter built by children in bushes or up trees, etc.
In sport:
The Den, a football stadium that was home to Millwall F.C. in New Cross London, SE14
The New Den, Bermondsey London, SE16, which is now the home of Millwall F.C.
Denver Nuggets (Abbreviation: DEN)
Denver Broncos (Abbreviation: DEN)
See also
The Den
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
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Earliest representation of women in Mesoamerica
Ceramic figurines have been found throughout Mesoamerica. Some of the earliest representations of women were figurines found at the sites of San Lorenzo and Paso de la Amada. Other sites include Tres Zapatoes, where the figurines were found in mounds and burials, and Chiapa de Corzo, at which figurines were discovered in residential areas and plazas. Both sites date from the mid to late Formative Period.
San Lorenzo is located in the southeast area of Veracruz, Mexico. The figurines discovered here were found in a midden pile during excavations of the site. They date to the early formative period, around 1900BC to 1300BC.
Paso de la Amada is in the Soconusco region of Chiapas, Mexico. The figurines here were discovered in household trash deposits and date to the Ocos, from 1400BC to 1250BC. The figurines found here are mainly of young women and old men. The female Paso de la Amada figurines have larger hips and breasts than the female figurines at other sites. This has led to some speculation that they may have been associated with fertility.
Earliest Maya depiction of women
The earliest known Maya stone carving of a woman was found at a site in northern Guatemala called Naachtun. The stela is about six feet high and three feet wide, with many inscriptions, some of which have been too damaged to read. The damage was most likely caused in an attack on the city. The stela dates to 300-400AD, which is significant because it shows women held positions of power early in Maya society, either as queens or deities. The stela shows the head of a woman wearing an elaborate headdress with her hands on each side holding the glyphs for 7 Black Kn, and 9 Ajaw. A hieroglyph above her head reads her name, Ix Tzutz Nik. This name is found on many other artifacts as well. Archaeologists do not know whether the woman is a queen of Tikal or a mythological figure, or both. The Maya later buried the monument during the 6th or 7th century near Naachtun temples in a ceremony meant to honor the woman whose image is shown. The burials of monuments were usually reserved for important founders or rulers.
Mythological women and goddesses
In the Maya codices, and especially in the Dresden Codex, a young goddess of women, marriage, and sensual love (goddess I) occurs frequently. In Classic Mayan iconography, and in the inscriptions, the young Maya moon goddess is of equal importance. Still another Maya goddess was Ixchel (goddess O), the patron of midwifery and medicine, represented as an aged woman with jaguar features. Moreover, Maya queens were often dressed as maize goddesses.
Female rulers
Although the Maya preferred that rulership pass to sons and not daughters, the eighth ruler of Palenque was a woman. Her name was Yohl Ikal, and she ruled for twenty years. She was most likely the sister or daughter of the previous ruler, Kan Bhlam I.
El Peru (Waka)
El Peru is a site in northwestern Guatemala, previously called Waka. It was inhabited sometime around 500 B.C. Archaeologists believe that at its peak between A.D. 400 and A.D. 800 Waka was home to approximately 10,000 people. At this site, archaeologists have discovered the almost untouched burial tomb of a Maya queen which dates to approximately 800AD. The queen skull and leg bone are missing, and were possibly removed to be used as relics. Though her name, lineage, and cause of death are not known, it is believed that the queen was between 30 and 45 at her death. Inside the tomb archaeologists found more than 1,600 artifacts, including a plated helmet with jade plaques, and a small jade carving of a deity in profile, which were worn by Maya royalty. Stingray spines, which were commonly used for bloodletting, were also found in the tomb, placed upon the queen pelvis. According to David Freidel of Southern Methodist University, the placement of the spines may served to represent the queen as both male and female , black body jewelry .
Common wome , bangles jewelry .
Maya women were important for many reasons. They were not seen as passive subordinates; instead they had important roles to play in society. Some of the most basic roles played by women were those of weaver and harvester.
Maya women were important because they could create new life by giving birth. Some scholars have suggested that by piercing their genitals during ritual self sacrifice, men were actually recreating the process of menstruation in women.
While women were not warriors themselves, their husbands success in battle could be affected by the women actions at home. Before Maya men went into battle, their wives would often let blood to ensure his success. While her husband was at war, it was essential that a Maya woman perform certain tasks, including sweeping the house in a particular manner, in order to please the gods enough to grant him success. Women were also held to strict standards in regards to sexuality Boys and girls were separated, with females staying with their mothers and males living in the men house, where prostitutes were often present. Girls were raised to be chaste and were severely punished by their mothers for lapses.
Marriage was viewed not as a love match, but as a potential social or political alliance. Marriages were arranged by families, and were particularly taboo if between two people with the same patrilineal name.
Maya standards of beauty included filing their front teeth with elaborate patterns, being scarred and/or tattooed form the waist up after marriage, and crossed eyes, which parents caused by hanging beads in front of their babies noses.
Maya women today
Though there have been politically and religiously notable women, it is safe to say that the larger role of women in Maya society has been that of helper, child bearer, mother, and wife. Maya women were of great importance in Maya society, but for the most part, they were not seen in the same light as men. Upon colonization, the Spanish caused a shift in the role of women. As many men were killed or forced to work far away, Maya women had to take on greater roles, including those of single mothers, primary breadwinner, and often they would work outside their homes. About a century after the conquest, even noble women were forced to work, since by then they had lost most of their possessions and status.
Today, most Maya women continue to be dependent mainly on their husband to support the family. Family sizes have begun to shift as some women are choosing to have fewer children than the women before them. As their society modernizes and Maya women take increasingly complex social and economic roles, it is no longer as beneficial to them as it once was to have many children.
However, in areas with the highest indigenous Maya populations, women still dress in the traditional Maya garb as they have for centuries. Weaving is still an integral part of their culture, and something that almost all young women are taught to do. Traditional Maya religion is still practiced alongside Catholicism in most of the Maya areas.
References
Carmack, Gasco, & Gossen, (2007). The Legacy of Mesoamerica, History and Culture of a Natinve American Civilization, 2nd edition, Pearson Education, Inc.
Coe, Michael, (2005). The Maya, 7th edition, Thames & Hudson, Inc.
http://www.authenticmaya.com/maya_religion.htm
http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Post/106590
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1208_051208_maya_woman.html
http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2004/maya/womenatcourt.htm
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4916517/
http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-07182004-012228/unrestricted/07_mbt_chap6.pdf
http://www.mesoweb.com/palenque/resources/rulers/essay/rulers_00001.html
http://www.macduffeverton.com/Modern%20Maya/Mayawoman.html
Categories: Maya civilizationHidden categories: Orphaned articles from February 2009 | All orphaned articles | Articles lacking sources from December 2008 | All articles lacking sources
Dehydrated Potato Cubes ,
Overview
Thaksinomics is a populist set of economic policies aimed at Thailand’s rural people, who make up the majority of the country’s population. The policies of Thaksinomics have included:
A four-year debt moratorium for farmers, combined with orders to Thailand’s state-owned banks to increase loans to farmers, villages and SMEs (small and medium-size enterprises) at low interest rates.
Subsidized transportation vehicle fuel prices, starting January 2004 in order to alleviate the impact of rising world oil prices on consumers. The government has also forced the state-owned electricity company EGAT to partially subsidize electricity tariffs.
In the policy of public health, Thaksin started the 30 Baht universal healthcare program, which guarantees universal healthcare coverage for just 30 Baht (about .75 USD) a visit at state hospitals. However, The universal healthcare program for public hospitals has failed.
The One Tambon One Product (OTOP) program, which stimulates the development of rural small and medium-sized enterprises.
Thaksin has pushed for continued privatization of state-owned enterprises. Although it is a continuation of the Democrat-initiated policies of the late-90’s, Thaksin has consistently pushed for the privatization of the state-owned electricity company EGAT. However, EGAT is still state-owned.
“Mega Projects”: During Thaksin’s tenure, this involved investing over $50 billion in public infrastructure, including roads, public transit, and a new international airport.
Supporters of Thaksinomics argue that these policies, implemented in the aftermath of the Asian Financial Crisis, have driven a stable, demand-driven recovery of Thailand’s economy, which was previously dependent on exports, making it vulnerable to external shocks. They also point out that under the Thaksin administration, Thailand has repaid all of its debts to the International Monetary Fund (incurred after the Asian Financial Crisis) four years ahead of schedule.
These policies have made Thaksin Shinawatra popular. After an unprecedented four years as Prime Minister, his populist Thai Rak Thai party won a landslide victory in the February 2005 elections, winning 374 out of 500 seats in Parliament. This was the largest number of parliamentary seats ever gained by a single party in Thailand’s history.
Critics of Thaksinomics claim that Thaksin’s economic policies amount to little more than traditional Keynesian fiscal stimulus policies rebranded as a revolutionary economic doctrine. They argue that, contrary to the claims of Thaksinomics’s advocates, Thailand’s economy was actually driven by rising export demand, while domestic consumer demand has grown only modestly at best since Thaksin became Prime Minister. Skeptics also note that under Thaksin’s policy of pushing state-owned banks to increase loans to poor farmers, consumer indebtedness has risen dramatically. They state that the banks often made loans without proper due diligence to people who had little means to repay the loans. Thaksin’s supporters often counter by pointing out that the percentage of non-performing loans in the banking system has fallen during his administration.
Thaksinomics in practice
By 2001, the currency had appreciated to an export-friendly level, and the economy had fully recovered from the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. The strong performance of the Thai economy beginning in 2002 was the immediate impact of Thaksinomics. In 2002, Thailand posted GDP growth of 5.3%, the fastest rate since 1996. The economy grew by another 7.1% in 2003. In 2004, in spite of a volatile external environment and rising oil prices, Thailand still managed a GDP growth rate of 6.3%.
Since 2005, however, there has been considerable controversy concerning Thaksinomics. Although the reelection of Thaksin and his Thai Rak Thai party in an unprecedented landslide in February demonstrated the widespread popularity of his policies, slower economic growth (4.5% in 2005), has given ammunition to critics of Thaksinomics. Thaksin’s supporters argue that the economic slowdown is largely a result of the Great Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004 and rising oil prices and inflation. But others point out that consumer indebtedness and trade deficits plagued the Thai economy in 2005, as a direct result of Thaksin’s policies. Thaksin was forced into an embarrassing retreat in July 2005 when the trade deficit and public debt caused the government to abandon its transportation vehicle fuel price subsidy. Corruption allegations stemming from public contracts in the construction of Suvarnabhumi Airport also threatened to cloud the future of Thaksin’s public infrastructure projects that formed the core of his second-term economic policies , dry vegetables .
Another important feature of Thaksinomics, is free trade. From 2002 - 2007, the Thaksin government rushed to sign free trade agreements (FTA) with China, New Zealand, Australia, India and United Arab Emirates. During his tenure, FTA negotiations were being made with the United States and Japan. Many critics argued that FTA agreements were unconstitutional for not having been approved by the parliament. Secondly, no detailed studies and analysis on the losses and gains have been made public - even the original agreements are still ’state secrets’. In effect, to avoid legal and wider public scutiny some of these trade and investment policies with foreign countries have been called ‘economic co-operation’. When questioned - officials in charge were instructed to present one-sided “win win” situation in all cases. The effects of these simplistic neo-liberal free trade agreements are now apparent. The Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs (in collaboration with the Agriculture University in Mae Jo and FTAWATCH, Chulalongkorn University) have compiled a study of five Northern Provinces which concluded that the Thai-Chinese free trade agreement on agriculture products have been overtly in favour of China resulting in a overall decline in local productions. The hardest hit are hundreds of thousdand landless small farmers (from both the low land and hill tribes). The study reported in 2005 a 70% decline in the production of red onion, garlic and other vegetables due to their inability to compete with cheaper products from Yunan Province. The price differences are astonishing: for example - Chinese garlic sells for 3 to 5 baht per kilo and opposed to 30 to 35 baht per kilo for the Thai garlic. Overall household indebtedness among this sector has increased tremendously to the extent that new government loans are mostly used to pay previously accumulated debts. Thai exporter in Chieng Mai have also complained to the Senate of unfair non-tariff trade barriers practiced by the Yunanese officials which led to a steep decline in Thai agriculture exports and in favour of Chinese-owned companies. The Royal Agriculture Projects for crop substitution for the hill tibes reported a critical decline in their proucts since the trade agreement with China - effecting some 140,000 families. In 2007 the UN on Crime and Drugs (Bangkok office) reported that Thailand is now listed as a country of ‘illegal drug producer’ (involving some 3,000 families growing mostly opium) in five provinces - all in the North.(In the 1990s Thailand was an exemplary country for its total erradiction of opium production. , mango dried .
The Thai government yearly reports give an overtly positive picture of free trade agreements only showing increase trade volumes with the ‘partners’. Export gains by enlarge benefit agricultural co-operates like the giant Charoen Pokaphan, multi-nationals like Toyota, Mitsuibishi, Nissan, Nike and others. FTAs also gave Thaksin’s family business a big boost. After years of negotiating, the Chinese government finally allowed iPSTAR of the Shin Corporation to operate its broad band satellite telecommunication. The Australian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Commerce made one announcement after the FTA - ‘Australians will now have access to broad band telecommunication with the investment of $280 million from Thailand’s iPSTAR’.
See also
Thaksinocracy
Reaganomics
Rogernomics
Thatcherism
Clintonomics
Obamanomics
External links
Thaksinomics- Unofficial Website
The Nation - “Abhisit’s Fame Taken in Vain”, October 7, 2005
v d e
Thaksin Shinawatra
Premiership
Premiership of Thaksin Shinawatra
Political activities
Thai Rak Thai Shinawatra policies Political career Thaksinomics
Controversies
Finland Plot South Thailand insurgency 2006 political crisis Coup d’tat Bangkok bombings Thaksinocracy
Electoral history
April 2006 Legislative election
Family
Potjaman Shinawatra Panthongtae Shinawatra Seng Sae Khu Chaiyasit Shinawatra Somchai Wongsawat
Categories: Economy of Thailand | Thaksin ShinawatraHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from June 2009 | All articles lacking sources
Corn Flakes/Breakfast Cereal Processing Line ,
lium vineale
Flowerhead showing bulbils and a few flowers
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Monocots
Order:
Asparagales
Family:
Alliaceae
Subfamily:
Allioidea , fresh onion .
Tribe , buy ginger .
Allieae
Genus:
Allium
Species:
A. vineale
Binomial name
Allium vineale
L.
Allium vineale (Crow Garlic or Wild Onion) is a perennial bulbflower in the genus Allium, native to Europe, north Africa and western Asia. The species is introduced in Australia and North America, where it has become an invasive species.
All parts of the plant have a strong garlic odour. The underground bulb is 1-2 cm diameter, with a fibrous outer layer. The main stem grows to 30-120 cm tall, bearing 2-4 leaves and an apical inflorescence 2-5 cm diameter comprising a number of small bulbils and none to a few flowers, subtended by a basal bract. The leaves are slender hollow tubular, 15-60 cm long and 2-4 mm thick, waxy textured, with a groove along the side of the leaf facing the stem. The flowers are 2-5 mm long, with six petals varying in colour from pink to red or greenish-white. It flowers in the summer, June to August in northern Europe. Plants with no flowers, only bulbils, are sometimes distinguished as the variety Allium vineale var. compactum, but this character is probably not taxonomically significant.
Uses and problems
Crow Garlic can be used as a substitute for garlic. It imparts a garlic-like flavour and odour on dairy and beef products when grazed by livestock. It is sometimes considered a weed, as grain products may become tainted with a garlic odour or flavour in the presence of aerial bulblets at the time of harvest. Wild garlic is resistant to herbicides due to the structure of its leaves, being vertical, smooth and waxy. Herbicides do not cling well to it and are therefore not as effective.[citation needed]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Allium vineale
Allium
Allium oleraceum
List of beneficial weeds
External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Flora of North America
Virginia Tech Weed Guide
Photo gallery
Categories: Allium | Garlic | Lawn weedsHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007
Canned Food ,
Alternative views
Some contemporary Catalan authors, such as Josep Pla, Jaume Fbrega or Eliana Thibaut i Comalada, and others like Colman Andrews, have suggested that, besides Catalonia proper, this cuisine takes in the Balearic and Valencian cusines, but this opinion is challenged as politicised, and is not widespread, nor is supported by either the Catalan, Balearic or Valencian government. In any case, mutual ties do exist between Catalan gastronomy and other Western Mediterranean gastronomies, such as Balearic cuisine, Valencian cuisine, Southern French cuisine, Aragonese cuisine or Murcian cuisine.
Basic ingredients
Fruits from La Boqueria Market, Barcelona
It relies heavily on ingredients found along the Mediterranean coast, including fresh vegetables (especially tomato, garlic, aubergine (eggplant), red pepper, and artichoke), wheat products (bread, pasta), Arbequina olive oils, wines, legumes (beans, chickpeas), mushrooms, all sorts of pork preparations (sausages from Vic, ham), all sorts of cheese, poultry, lamb, and many types of fish like sardine, anchovy, tuna, and cod , clove of garlic .
The traditional Catalan cuisine is quite diverse, ranging from pork-intensive dishes cooked in the inland part of the region (Catalonia is one of the main producers of swine products in Spain) to fish-based recipes along the coast , slicer potato .
The cuisine includes many preparations that mix sweet and savoury and stews with sauces based upon botifarra (pork sausage) and the characteristic picada (ground almonds, hazelnuts, pine nuts, etc. sometimes with garlic, herbs, biscuits).
Savoury dishes
Coques, a kind of pizza.
Rovellons or Pinatells, a tasty wild mushroom
Sausage from Vic.
Catalan-style cod (with raisins and pine nuts)
Escalivada (various grilled vegetables)
Escudella (a stew with rice)
Ollada or “Putxero” (val.) (Meat and vegetable stew)
Esqueixada or “esgarrat”" (val.) (salted cod salad with tomato and onion)
Mongetes amb botifarra (beans and pork sausage)
Pa amb tomquet (bread smeared with an olive oil, garlic and tomato sauce)
Tonyina en escabetx (tuna escabeche)
Suquet de peix (a seafood casserole)
Savoury Coca (pastry)
“Sea and mountain” dishes (a generic term for meat and fish dishes)
Embotits, a generic name for different kinds of cured pork meat), including Fuet (a characteristic type of dried sausage) and Salchichn or Llonganissa (salami).
Calots (specially cultivated onions, grilled and served as a “Calotada”)
Cargols a la llauna (cooked snails)
Sauces and condiments
Calots with Romesco sauce for dipping
Allioli, a thick sauce made of garlic and olive oil, used with grilled meats or vegetables, and some dishes. Allioli means garlic (all) and (i) oil (oli) in Catalan language.
Samfaina, also called tomacat or pebrots amb tomquet. It’s a variety of Occitan ratatouille or Spanish Pisto.
Salvitxada (made from almonds, hazelnuts, garlic, bread, vinegar, tomatoes, olive oil and dried red peppers) from Valls.
Xat, a variety of Salvitxada without tomatoes.
Sweets and desserts
A crema catalana
A xuixo
A tray of panellets, as they are typically served
Crema catalana, the famous yellow cream made with yolks, milk and sugar; which denseness is between a crme ptissire ou natillas and a flan; used to stuff a great amount of pastrys, or to make simple desserts with, for example, fruit, and that we also eat in a small flat pottery plate, after couvering the cream with white cristal sugar and burning it, in order to create a layer of solid sugar that we have to brake whith a little spoon before to reach the cream.
Mat de Pedralbes or mat de monja is another kind of Catalan cream, similar to crema catalana, originated in Barcelona.
Menjablanc or menjar blanc is typical of Tarragona but eaten over Catalonia, is a kind of white cream made with almonds, of which we obtain fist a sort of milk, and after we make with this a cream which will be eaten whith a small spoon.
Peres de LLeida is a typical dessert originated in Lleida composed by peeled poires cooked in a kind of lighter crema catalana and served cold, covered by meringue and decorated with cherries.
Xuixos are fried pastries created in Girona and stuffed with crema catalana.
Mel i mat, a dessert of mat cheese with honey
Pastissets, or casquetes, de cabell d’ngel are sweet half-cercle shaped pastries stuffed with cabell d’ngel (a sort of marrow jam) and covered with white cristal sugar which are eaten at coffee time
Carquinyolis are little almond crunchy biscuits often eaten at coffee time.
Catnies are Catalan marcona almonds covered by white chocolate and powdered black chocolate to eat with the coffee.
Pets de monja are small nipple-shaped and sized biscuits also eaten at coffee time. At firts they were called pits de monja (nun’s nipples) but time has changed their name to current pits de monja (nun’s farts).
Sweet coques were at first eaten only in holydays. Catalans have at least on type of traditional coca for each holyday and feast day of the year.
Orelletes are thin fried pastries covered with sugar and eaten in carnival. They also exists in near rgions in Spain or France.
Sweet bunyols as bunyols de vent, bunyols stuffed with crema catalana or bunyols de l’Empord are typically done and eaten on Wednesdays and Fridays during lent.
Mona de Pasqua is a pastry richly couvered with almonds, yolk jam, chocolate eggs (or currently big chocolate scuptures) and coloured decoration that godfather and godmother give as a pressent, every year, to their godchildren in Easter (Pasqua). It is a very old tradition that existed before christianism and which marked the impasse from childness to the adult’s world. At fist, it has one egg for each year of children’s age and that stopped at twelve, as at thirteen they were no more considered children.
Panellets are small pastries made of pine nuts, almonds and sugar with different shapes and flaveurs, eaten during la Castanyada, that Catalans celebrate on 1st November instead of Halloween. Their origine is juif, before the Middle Ages, but the tradition of castanyada is very much older.
Tortell, also called torta or rosc in northern and southern dialects. It is rond, it can be made of puff pastry or a mixture similar as lionesas and palos, stuffed with trufa (a mixture of cacao, chocolate and cream) or with crema catalana. It is typically bought and eaten after Sunday’s lunch, in family or with friends. It is also typical, as an alternative, the bra de gitano, that in Catalonia is always covered with yolk jam.
A specific tortell is in fact a special coca that Catalan only eat the day of the Three Kings (6th January) which is called “tortell de reis”, or galeta de reis in French Catalonia, a typical ring-shaped pastry stuffed with marzipan or catalan cream (crema catalana) and topped with glazed fruit and nuts.
Torr, a Christmas sweet made with almonds with DAO of Alicante, Xixona (Alicante) and Agramunt (Lleida).
Neules are also eaten on Christmas in Catalonia. They are dipped in cava (Catalan champagne). They have the same origin as Waffles and Belgian Goffres.
Wines
Main article: Catalan wine
Main article: Spanish wine regions
There are 11 Catalan wine-growing regions qualified by the INCAVI (The Catalan Institute of Wine): Priorat, Peneds, Catalunya, Costers del Segre, Conca de Barber, Montsant, Alella, Tarragona, Empord-Costa Brava, Pla del Bages and Terra Alta.
The sparkling wine cava, made mainly in the Peneds and Anoia regions, is the Catalan equivalent to champagne. It is widely exported.
“Moscatell” (Empord), is a sweet Catalan wine which have similar varieties in other countries as France, Italy, Portugal, Albania, Slovenia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey, other regions of Spain, etc. However, Catalan moscatell is thicker than French muscat and not drunk before eaten -in the aperitiu- but after, with or after dessert.
Chefs and restaurants
Catalan cooks and chefs are widely renowned and critically acclaimed all over the world. Though Barcelona has the largest number of high quality restaurants, the few most award-winning restaurants are located in its outskirts or over all the Catalan surface, specially in Ampurdan.
In Barcelona’s centre one of the most emblematic restaurants is Josep Lladonosa’s “Set Portes”, next to the port and specialised in traditional rice and fish dishes, and one of the best patisseries is “La Nata”, at avinguda de Sarri. In Barcelona’s metropolitan area, in L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, there is, for example, “Evo”. Near Barcelone these is for example Santi Santamara’s “Can Fabes” whereas Carme Ruscalleda’s “Sant Pau” is between Barcelona and Girona. In the centre of Girona there is “El Celler de Can Roca”, for example, or, near the beach, in Roses, Ferran Adri’s “El Bulli”.
See also
Spanish cuisine
Balearic cuisine
Valencian cuisine
Bibliography
ANDREWS, Colman, Catalan Cuisine Harvard Common Press, 2006 ISBN 1558323295
FBREGA i COLOM, Jaume, Traditional Catalan Cooking Edicions de La Magrana, 1997, ISBN 8474109647 ISBN-13: 9788474109641
LLADONOSA i GIR, Josep, The Book of Catalan Kitchen Alianza Editorial, 2007, ISBN 84-206-0354-6
Notes
^ Official webpage of the French Catalonian Government
^ SEN, Miquel et al, 2005, La Cuina comarca a comarca: Andorra-Cerdanya, Ciro DL. Barcelona.
^ PLA, Josep, 1970, l que hem menjat, Barcelona (Spain) (this edition 1997 Premsa catalana)
^ THIBAUT I COMALADA, Eliana, 2001, ‘La Cuina…
